TOEFL® EXAM ESSENTIALS LearningExpress

Copyright © 2004 LearningExpress, LLC.

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Conventions. Published in the United States by Learning Express, LLC,

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TOEFL exam essentials / LearningExpress—1st ed.

p. cm.

ISBN 1-57685-504-X (pbk.)

1. English language—Textbooks for foreign speakers. 2. Test of

English as a foreign language—Study guides. 3. English language—

Examinations—Study guides. I. Title.

PE1128.M747 2004

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2003018793

Printed in the United States of America

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First Edition

ISBN 1-57685-504-X

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Contents

Introduction vii

Chapter 1 How to Use This Book to Get a Top Score 1

Chapter 2 Listening 23

Chapter 3 Structure 49

Chapter 4 Reading 85

Chapter 5 Writing 113

Appendix A Test Details 139

Appendix B Resources 149

Introduction

T his essential guide to the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) exam is perfect for studying on the go and tackling the exact kinds of questions tested on your upcoming official exam. Information is presented in an easy-tofollow, straightforward manner so you can find what you need, learn the information, and move on—it’s that simple. Each chapter covers the essential facts and practice you need to get prepared for your exam, as well as tips on where to go to for more detailed practice and further information. Whether you need to review all parts of the TOEFL exam or just skip ahead to the sections where you need extra practice and review, TOEFL Exam Essentials has just what you need for focused, targeted practice.

■ Chapter 1: About the TOEFL exam—signing up for the

test, study schedules, how to prepare with this book

■ Chapter 2: Listening skills—lesson and practice

■ Chapter 3: Structure skills—lesson and practice

■ Chapter 4: Reading comprehension skills—lesson and

practice

■ Chapter 5: Writing skills—lesson and practice

Good luck!

vii

Chapter 1

How to Use This Book

to Get a Top Score

If you are planning to take the TOEFL exam, you are not alone.Worldwide more than 700,000 people will likely take the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) this year. Native speakers of 145 different languages—representing more than 220 countries and regions—take the TOEFL exam annually. And, over 4,500 colleges, universities, programs, and agencies in the United States and Canada will use the TOEFL exam to evaluate applicants who are not native speakers of English. This important test measures your ability to read, write, and understand English so you can succeed in a college classroom or professional program.  To prepare for the TOEFL exam, unlike other standardized tests, you can’t just memorize a list of vocabulary words or math formulas and expect to do well on the exam. You need to understand conversations and other spoken English, know grammar rules, understand and process what you read, and be able to

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

express yourself effectively in writing. As you sharpen your English-language skills to prepare for the exam, this book will highlight what you need to know to get your best score. If you have looked on the shelves of your local bookstore, you know the volume of test-preparation tools and guidebooks can

be overwhelming. That’s why this guide is designed to focus on the most important parts of studying for the TOEFL exam, without weighing you down. TOEFL Exam Essentials pulls together all the pieces of test preparation for you:

■ what to expect on the test

■ successful test-taking strategies

■ how to make your own study plan

■ a review of the content and skills you need to know

You can take this book with you wherever you go. Take it out while you wait for the bus, during a work break, or while you exercise at the gym. It fits in your pocket or purse so you can fit your study time into a busy schedule. By using this book, you are taking your first steps to earning a top score on the TOEFL exam. Good luck as you prepare for the exam and pursue the education you need for a successful future.

WHAT THE TOEFL EXAM IS ABOUT

The TOEFL exam has two formats: a computer-based test and a paper-and-pencil version. You can take the computer-based test (CBT) at test centers around the world throughout the year. In some areas, the CBT is not available and the paper-based TOEFL exam is offered instead. The paper test is offered six times a year at specific locations. Although the test designs for the

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK TO GET A TOP SCORE

CBT and the paper-based test are different, both versions measure the same skills and use similar content for reading passages and recorded conversations. The computer-based TOEFL exam has four components: listening, structure, reading, and writing.

■ The listening section tests your ability to understandNorth American English. You will use headphones to listen to conversations and lectures and then answer multiple-choice questions about them. You will be asked to locate main ideas, supporting ideas, and understand inferences made in the conversations that you hear.

■ The structure section measures your knowledge of grammar and usage in standard written English. You will read sentences and locate grammatical errors or complete sentences with an appropriate word or phrase.

■ The reading portion of the exam will measure your ability to read and understand short, written passages. The passages will have a style and subject matter similar to that of college-level academic texts.

■ The writing section will ask you to compose a short essay on a general topic selected by the computer from a large set of possible topics. It measures your ability to write in English and develop and organize ideas about an assigned subject.

You will have about four hours to complete the CBT. Before you begin the test, you will go through a tutorial about basic computer skills, including how to use a mouse, how to scroll, and how to use testing tools. Each test section also begins with a tutorial that

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

Computer-Based TOEFL Exam
Section	Number of Questions	Time Limit	Computer  Adaptive?
Tutorials  Listening	7 tutorials 30–49	No time limit 15–25 minutes to answer questions 40–60 minutes total (You will not be timed while you listen to recordings; only while you answer questions.)	Yes
Structure	20–25	15–20 minutes	Yes
Reading	44–55	70–90 minutes (This includes the time it takes you to read passages and answer questions.)	No
Writing	One topic	30 minutes	No

will demonstrate how to answer test questions in that part of the exam. These tutorials are not scored, and you can spend as much time on them as you need. You can also take these tutorials prior to the test for no charge at www.toefl.org or purchase a downloadable file. It is a good idea to practice your computer skills ahead of time and become familiar with how to answer test questions using a computer—this will be an advantage to you on exam day. The paper-based TOEFL exam has three sections: listening comprehension, structure and written expression, and reading

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK TO GET A TOP SCORE

What Is Computer-Adaptive Testing? Some sections of the computer-based TOEFL exam are computer adaptive, which means the computer selects your questions based on your level of proficiency. Your first question will have an average level of difficulty. Your next question will either be easier or harder, depending on how you answered the first. The listening and structure parts of the exam are computer adaptive, but the reading and writing sections are not

comprehension. Each section consists of multiple-choice questions with four possible answer choices for each question. Although the test format varies from the CBT, the skills measured are

the same.

■ Listening comprehension tests your ability to understand North American English, including use of idiom and vocabulary.

■ Structure and written expression tests your ability to recognize grammatical errors in standard written English and complete sentences with an appropriate word or phrase.

■ Reading comprehension asks you to read and answer questions about short passages like those used in college-level texts.

The Test of Written English (TWE), a 30-minute writing test, is a required part of the paper-and-pencil TOEFL exam on

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

Paper-and-Pencil TOEFL                                                          Number of Section                                              Questions                        Time Limit

Listening comprehension                         50                                         30–40 minutes Structure and written expression                                    40                                         25 minutes Reading comprehension                          50                                         55 minutes Test of Written English (TWE)             One topic                                  30 minutes Note: Number of questions and time limits may vary.

most test dates. There is no separate fee for the TWE. You will write a short essay about an assigned general topic. What about your test score? The TOEFL exam has no single passing score. The college, university, or agency to which you are applying decides the minimum test score that it accepts. To learn more about how the TOEFL exam is scored, see Appendix A.

MANAGE YOUR TIME

If your life is busy, you may wonder how you will find the time to prepare for the TOEFL exam. You can’t make each day longer, but effective time management—how you organize and use your time—can help make the most of the time you have to get ready for the exam. Managing your time during the exam is also an important skill. To manage your time before the exam, evaluate how you currently use your time. Follow these steps to better organize your time:

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK TO GET A TOP SCORE 7

■ Review your current activities and obligations, including recurring ones like classes, your work

schedule, your exercise or sports schedule, or religious services.

■ Prioritize your activities. Which are the most important to you? Are there any activities you can eliminate to make more time to prepare for the TOEFL exam?

■ Work out a weekly schedule. Make a list of your major weekly events, including your TOEFL exam study goals for the week. (See more about creating a successful study plan later in this chapter.) List any major social, work, or school-related events (for example, a vocabulary test in

Register Right Away Test centers fill up quickly, so begin the TOEFL exam registration process right away. Registration information is available online at www.toefl.org or in the TOEFL exam Bulletin, available at English language centers or at the international student center at the university to which you are applying. You can also request a Bulletin by writing to: TOEFL/TSE Services P.O. Box 6151 Princeton, NJ 08541-6151 609-771-7100

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

English class). Ideally, create this schedule for each week of your test preparation period.

■ Create a daily “to do” list.Write down your activities, including your TOEFL exam study goals for the day. Make this list daily, before bed, or first thing in the morning. Carry it with you and cross out the items that you have accomplished. Managing your time effectively while you are actually taking the TOEFL exam is a crucial skill. As outlined earlier in this chapter, each section of the TOEFL exam has a specific time limit. You are expected to complete each section within that given amount of time. Because you know how much time you have, you can pace yourself and budget the amount of time you would like to spend on each question. If you are taking the computer-based TOEFL exam, an onscreen clock display will keep track of the current question number, the total number of questions, and the time you have left to answer them. For example, if you are halfway through a section with 30 questions, you may see a display that shows question 15 of 30 and 00:09 minutes remaining. The display continuously changes as you go through the section. To help you manage your time during the exam, review these guidelines:

■ Sharpen your computer skills if you are taking the computer-based exam. Even if you use a computer every day, taking a test on a computer may be unfamiliar to you. Go to the TOEFL exam website (www.toefl.org) for free online tutorials before exam time.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK TO GET A TOP SCORE 9

■ Take a practice test and time yourself. For a 20- question practice test with a time limit of 40 minutes, give yourself about two minutes for each practice question. This will help you learn to pace yourself.

■ Read the directions before you begin each section. The total number of questions and the time allotment are listed at the start of each section—carefully review it, even if you think you already know the information. The number of questions may vary because the test developers sometimes add questions for research purposes. They do this to determine whether a new

question for a future test is sufficiently clear. These questions are not scored and you will not know which ones they are.

■ Eliminate incorrect answer choices. Most of the questions used in the TOEFL exam are multiple-choice. For each question, you will have a set of four possible answers. Read the questions carefully and eliminate the answer choices you know are incorrect. This will make it

easier for you to find the correct answer.

■ Do not spend too much time on any one question. If you do not know the answer, eliminate as many answer choices as possible and then choose your best answer. Do not make a random guess unless absolutely necessary for you to move on to the next question. On the computer based exam, the listening and structure portions of the test (the computer-adaptive parts of the

test), do not allow you to skip questions or return to them later. Once you click the “Confirm Answer”

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

button on your computer screen, you cannot change your answer. Random guessing, however, can reduce your score. Fortunately, in the reading section, you can make note of a difficult question and go back to it after you have completed the rest of the questions. Likewise,

on the paper-and-pencil version of the test, you can answer questions in the order that you wish.

■ Try to finish each section if you are running out of time. This does not mean you should make random guesses—again, doing so can significantly lower your score on the CBT. However, evidence shows that most test takers will score higher if they answer all the questions than if they do not try to complete the test. Here are some other tips for answering multiple-choice

questions:

■ Watch for tricky wording. Some questions use wording such as “All of the following are true except” or “Which of the following is not a likely outcome?” You will find answer choices that are accurate, but do not fit the question.

■ Look out for absolutes. Be careful answering questions that use words such as always, never, none, or all. You may find answer choices that sound correct but are not true in every circumstance.

■ Beware of silly answer choices. Test makers often include silly or easily confused answer choices. When you are under pressure, these choices can become

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK TO GET A TOP SCORE

appealing if you are not reading closely. Eliminate these options first.

CREATE A STUDY PLAN

Have you ever crammed for a big test, trying to learn everything at the last minute? If you have, you know that you can’t learn all the material for a major exam in one study session. And if you stayed up all night cramming, you probably found out that you were too tired to study effectively. A study plan creates a framework for you to follow as you prepare for the TOEFL exam. By planning ahead,you can break down your studying into smaller blocks of time that are easier to manage, less intimidating, and more effective. To implement a study plan, first consider your study environment. You will need a place to study that has a minimum of distractions, a location where you can concentrate and spread outyour materials. Your study environment should also be well lit and

Should You Guess? In most cases, the answer is yes—if you can eliminate at least one answer. On the computer-based TOEFL exam, random guessing will lower your score. Only guess if you can cross out at least one answer. On the paper-based TOEFL exam, however, your score is based on the number of questions you answer correctly. Because there is no penalty for wrong answers, you should guess even if you can’t eliminate one or more answer choices.

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

What You Need Before You Start To make your TOEFL exam study time more effective, get the right study tools. Here are some suggestions: ■ a good English-language dictionary, such as Merriam- Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th Edition ■ paper or legal pads ■ pencils or pens ■ highlighter pens in different colors ■ index or note cards ■ notebooks and folders ■ calendar or Personal Digital Assistant, such as a Palm Pilot™

comfortable for you. A corner of your bedroom, a study in your home, the local library, or your school are all possibilities. Once you have a place to work, collect the study tools you will need.

With study tools in hand and a place to study, it’s time to collect the information you need to make decisions about what to study and how much time to allocate to each area of study.

Follow these five steps to create an effective study plan:

1. Get the information you need. Find out the details

about the TOEFL exam, including:

When will it be held?

Where is the test center nearest you?

How do you register?

What do you need to register?

How much does it cost?

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK TO GET A TOP SCORE

What do you need to bring with you on exam day? What exactly will be tested on the exam? Some of this information is covered in this chapter and in Appendix A at the back of the book. For more information, you may need to contact your nearby test center or university or go to www.toefl.org.

2. Find out what you already know and what you need to learn. For your study plan to be useful, you need to decide which subject areas require the most of your attention. Take a practice TOEFL exam. Your score will show both your strengths and the areas in which you need improvement.

3. Set a time frame. Now that you know where to focus your study, you can decide how much time you can give to each subject area. First write down a list of specific study goals. Be realistic—try to make goals that you can accomplish. Now use a calendar to set deadlines for these goals. Break up your studying into small time blocks so you can reach your goal one step

at a time. Avoid making goals that are too big and too general—for example, “Learn everything by May 1.” Instead, set dates to learn material throughout March and April and your study plan will enable you to learn everything by May 1. For example, if you have three months for test preparation and need to focus on building your reading comprehension skills, you might create a schedule like the one on the next page. In this study plan, the first five weeks focus solely on

reading comprehension. However, the plan also allows for time to study other test materials and complete an

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

Week 1    Review basic reading comprehension strategies. Start vocabulary list. Week 2    Practice vocabulary in context questions and specific detail questions. Week 3    Practice inference questions. Week 4    Practice finding references. Week 5    Take reading comprehension practice test. Week 6    Review grammar and usage rules. Start reading novel. Week 7    Continue reviewing grammar and usage rules. Week 8    Take structure practice test. Finish novel. Week 9    Review writing strategies. Write a practice essay. Week 10  Write two more practice essays. Week 11  Start overall review. Week 12  Continue overall review until test day. Every day: Read several articles in an English-    language newspaper. Every week: Watch or listen to a TV show, news program, or movie in English to build listening skills.

overall review before the exam day. It sets specific weekly goals as well as smaller, daily goals.

4. Stick to your plan.Write it down and post it where you can see it. Unexpected events—such as coming down with the flu or a problem at work—may interrupt your plans. Don’t waste time worrying—just pick up

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK TO GET A TOP SCORE 15where you left off. Try to put in extra time during the next few weeks to catch up. You may need to adjust  your schedule to make deadlines more realistic, but be sure to give yourself enough time to finish everything before the exam.

5. Modify your plan. Most likely, you will need to adjust your study plan as you proceed. Review your progress every week. Did you reach your goals? If not, where did you fall short and why? The more you assess what is working in your plan and what is not working, the more it will address your actual study needs. It may go without saying, but the key element to doing well

on the TOEFL exam is mastering the material covered on the test. Proficiency in English-language skills is crucial for success. How can you best improve your listening, grammar, reading, and writing skills? Knowing how to study can be as important as how much time you spend studying. Effective study strategies are active rather than passive, meaning that you do something, such as the following:

■ Ask questions as you study, read, or listen to a conversation in English.

• What is the main idea being expressed?

• What is the author or speaker trying to prove?

• What is fact and what is opinion?

■ Locate what is important. As you read, use a highlighter or pencil to underline key information, such as:

• terms that are defined in the text

• main ideas

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

• words or grammar rules you want to remember

• new ideas

• vocabulary words or expressions you need to look up

■ Make connections. If you can make connections between ideas, you will better remember the material. For example, if Spanish is your native language, you might connect the word dormir (“to sleep” in Spanish) with dormitory (the English word for a room or building

where students sleep).

■ Make notes. Note taking can help you remember material, even if you never read your notes again. That’s because it’s a muscle activity, and using your muscles helps you remember. While reading or listening, make note of main ideas, supporting details, authorities, opinions and facts, and key terms

.

BEAT TEST STRESS

Your palms sweat, your breathing quickens, and your heart races. Most test takers recognize these common symptoms—the signs of stress. However, by following a study plan and taking concrete actions to reduce the stress in your life, you can boost your confidence on exam day and lower your test stress.Keep your general stress levels low. Take note of the factors in your life that cause you stress, such as family, work, or school problems. Try to deal with those stresses that interfere with studying and preparing for the exam. For example, if you can’t study at home because it is loud or chaotic, make plans to find a quieter, calmer location like a friend’s house or the library. Taking

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK TO GET A TOP SCORE

specific actions can help you limit stress. The result will be that you will feel more relaxed when you sit down to take the exam. Here are seven ways to better handle stress.

1. Get plenty of sleep. Most adults need seven to nine hours of sleep a night. Being deprived of sleep will make you less able to cope with stress, less able to concentrate, and less likely to perform well. If you have a hard time falling asleep, try these tips:

■ Keep a regular schedule. Go to sleep and get up at the same time every day.

■ Take a relaxing bath or read a book.

■ Stay away from caffeine after lunchtime (coffee, tea, cola, and chocolate may contain caffeine).

■ Exercise earlier in the day (at least two to four hours before bedtime). A tired body will need more sleep (but a workout just before bed will keep you awake).

2. Eat well and exercise. Good nutrition and regular exercise are important for your complete health. Stay away from high-sugar, high-calorie, low-nutrition snacks and meals. Instead of donuts, potato chips, or cookies, for example, try low-fat yogurt, fresh-squeezed fruit juice, or carrot sticks. Also, try to fit some exercise into your busy schedule—even a brisk walk can

improve your mood, reduce stress, and boost your energy level.

3. Study. Review and improve your skills ahead of time and you will feel calm and confident when you walk into the testing room. If you fall behind in your study plan, do not worry—just try to get back on schedule.

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

4. Be prepared. New situations can make people nervous. Find out where the TOEFL exam test center is and plan how you will get there. Organize the materials you will need for the test the night before. Use this book to learn about the format of the exam and what types of questions to expect. If you prepare well, the TOEFL exam will not be new to you.

5. Create realistic goals. Break up big goals into smaller, easier-to-manage tasks. Instead of telling yourself what you “should” do, do the best you can. Keep things in

perspective—the TOEFL exam is an important test, but don’t lose sight of the other important parts of your life.

6. Think positively. Imagine yourself doing well— picture yourself at the exam, calmly answering each question. If you believe you can do it, you will be more likely to achieve your goals.

7. Reward yourself. Give yourself rewards throughout your preparation for the TOEFL exam. This can make studying less burdensome. Set up realistic rewards for following your study plan and, eventually, for your well-earned test score.

COUNTDOWN TO EXAM DAY

After months of preparation, your hard work will soon pay off. The test is just a week away. How can you make the most of your final days? Here’s a countdown plan that will help you reach your goal and reduce unnecessary stress.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK TO GET A TOP SCORE

The week before

■ Get detailed directions to the test center. Take a practice drive or practice commute so you   know how long it takes to get there.

■ Do an overall review of your material.

■ Get plenty of sleep every night.

■ Picture yourself doing well on the test.

The day before

■ Go to bed early.

■ Get light exercise. Avoid heavy workouts—you do not want to be physically exhausted on exam day.

■ Pack everything you need: pencils/pens, admission materials, identification, mints, or snacks for break time.

■ Set your alarm and ask a family member or friend to make sure you are up on time.

Exam day

■ Get up early.

■ Eat a light, healthy breakfast. (Don’t drastically change your diet on exam day. For example, if you drink coffee regularly, don’t skip it because you may get a headache. But don’t overdo it, either.)

■ Dress comfortably in layers so you can adjust to a room that is too hot or too cool.

■ Arrive at the test center early.

■ Think positively. Remember, you are prepared.

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

USE THIS BOOK WITH OTHER

TEST-PREPARATION MATERIAL

TOEFL Exam Essentials gives you key information about the TOEFL exam in a quick, easy style and format. Unlike other testprep books that use a question-and-answer format, TOEFL Exam Essentials offers strategies for studying and test taking that can make the difference for you in getting a top score on this important exam. When used in combination with other test-preparation materials, TOEFL Exam Essentials is a powerful tool that will help you succeed.

If you are committed to doing well on the TOEFL exam, you should also invest the time and money into purchasing or using other test-preparation materials that contain practice tests. As you prepare for the exam, consider taking several practice tests. Use the study plan described earlier in this chapter to schedule your practice test.You will find many test-preparation books at your bookstore, library, or for purchase online. See Learning Express’s TOEFL Exam Success (LearningExpress, 2002) for detailed study and learning strategies, lessons, and practice questions targeted to the kinds of questions asked in each section of the official exam. The Internet also contains resources for the TOEFL exam. Some websites offer online practice tests and scoring, with an analysis of your results. If you register for the computer-based TOEFL exam, taking a practice test on a computer will be an advantage to you. You will become more familiar with the experience of taking a standardized test on a computer so that when you take the official exam, it won’t be new to you. See Appendix B in the back of the book for more print and online resources

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK TO GET A TOP SCORE 21

A primary resource for TOEFL exam preparation is the official TOEFL exam website at www.toefl.org. Since July 2003, the Educational Testing Service (ETS)—the service that administers the TOEFL exam—has made test-preparation material available at no charge when you register for the test. You can access the material on the TOEFL exam website or request that it be mailed to you. The TOEFL exam website also offers online registration,

the most current information about the test, and the locations of test centers around the world. Here are some other helpful resources found at www.toefl.org:

■ Frequently asked questions about the computer-based test: www.toefl.org/toeflcbt/cbtfaq.html

■ Free online computer tutorial (how to scroll, how to use mouse): www.toefl.org/testprep/cbtutprq.html

■ Practice questions (computer-based): www.toefl.org/testprep/cbtutprq.html

■ Complete list of TOEFL exam writing topics: www.toefl.org/testprep/preindx.html#wrtgtopics

■ Frequently asked questions about the paper-based test: www.toefl.org/toeflsup/suppfaq.html

■ Practice questions (paper-based): www.toefl.org/onsitetst/itpprac.html

Now that you have started getting ready for the exam, let TOEFL Exam Essentials streamline the test-preparation process for you. The next chapters describe each section of the TOEFL

exam, emphasizing the specific language skills and test-taking strategies that will help you do your best.

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

■ Register for the test soon.

■ Organize your current calendar so you can make time to prepare for the TOEFL exam.

■ Design a study plan and modify it as you go to make it more useful.

■ Stick to your study plan as much as possible.

■ Time yourself answering practice questions so you can pace yourself during the exam.

■ Take a standardized practice test on a computer if you are taking the computer TOEFL exam.

■ Sharpen your computer skills if you are taking the computer TOEFL exam.

■ Study in an active manner: ask questions, highlight or underline, make notes.

■ Take steps to reduce your general stress level.

■ Follow strategies to cut down on your test stress. Adequate test preparation, regular sleep, and good health habits will increase your confidence and energy.

■ Be prepared: know how to get to the test center and what materials and documents you will need on test day.

■ Think positively—you are ready for your exam

Chapter 2

Listening

You may think of listening as a passive activity, but becoming a good listener means learning to listen actively—to ask questions, analyze, and draw conclusions about what you

hear. Because lectures and class discussions are the primary teaching methods at universities, good listening skills are crucial for your success at college. The listening section of the TOEFL exam measures your ability to understand North American English. It uses conversational

language including idiomatic expressions, rather than formal, written English. The section has 30–50 questions and is 40–60 minutes in length. On the exam, you will hear three types

of recordings:

 Dialogues: a brief conversation between two people. In some, each person speaks only once. In others, one or both people speak more than once. Each dialogue is followed by one question.

Short conversations and class discussions: a seven- or eight-line conversation between two or more people about a specific topic, followed by several questions.

Mini-lectures: a one- or two-minute talk by a single speaker, followed by several questions.

Below is a breakdown of each recording type for the computerand paper-based TOEFL exams:

Types of recordings	Computer  Test	Paper-and Pencil
Dialogues,	11–17 dialogues , with one question each	30 dialogues with one question each
Short	2–3 conversations,	2 conversations
Conversations	with 2–3 questions each	with 7–8 questions total
Mini-lectures/	4–6 mini-lectures, with	3 mini-lectures with
Academic	3–6 questions each	12–13 questions total
Discussions

COMPUTER TEST VS. PAPER TEST

The listening section on the computer-based test (CBT) differs from that on the old, paper-based test. Although you will listen to the same kinds of conversations and talks, you will answer fewer questions about each on the CBT. The listening section of the CBT is also computer adaptive, meaning that the computer selects questions based on your ability level. Your first question

LISTENING 25

will be of average difficulty. If you answer it correctly, your next question will be harder. If you answer incorrectly, your next question will be easier. Here are some other key differences between the two tests:

Computer Test Listening:	Paper-and-Pencil: Listening Comprehension
30–50 questions	50 questions
Computer adaptive questions are based on your ability.	Test takers answer the same questions.
You wear a headset with adjustable volume.	Test administrator plays recordings
Includes visuals (pictures and other graphics).	Does not include visuals
You hear and see the questions on the computer screen.	You hear the questions only.
You control the pace by choosing when to begin the next recording	You follow the same pace as other test takers
Questions may have two answers.	Questions have only one answer.
Most questions are multiple choice, but some follow special directions	All questions are multiple choice
Once you submit an answer, you cannot change it.	You can return to previous questions and change your answers.

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

LEARNING HOW TO LISTEN

How can you become a more active listener? Practicing the following listening techniques will improve your ability to understand spoken English:

■ Focus on the speaker. Do not be distracted by your surroundings or by daydreaming.

■ Use non-verbal responses, like nodding your head or leaning toward the speaker as you listen. Even if you are listening to a pre-recorded audiotape for the TOEFL exam, your physical responses will engage you in the act of listening and help you concentrate on the information.

■ Concentrate on the message. If you plan to take the computer TOEFL exam, you will see pictures of people on your computer screen before each recording. These visuals will orient you to the setting and participants of the conversation, but they may also distract you. Focus

on the conversation, not the picture. If you are taking the paper-based TOEFL, find a place in the room—a blank chalkboard or wall—to direct your attention. Do not be distracted by the reader’s appearance as you listen to him or her. You may also try closing your eyes as you listen to the reading of each passage.

SPECIAL TIPS FOR THE COMPUTER TEST

Developers of the computer test use the computer’s multimedia ability to present different types of questions and to include

LISTENING

images along with audio recordings. Other special features of the computer test include listening to the recordings on your own headset and controlling your pace throughout the section. To prepare for the computer-based test, try these test-taking strategies:

1. Adjust the volume on your headset before you begin the listening section. Make sure that you can hear the recordings clearly. You will not be allowed to adjust the volume once the testing begins.

2. Don’t be distracted by the computer images of people. Before most dialogues, your computer screen will show a picture of the people in the conversation you are listening to. These images are meant to set the scene. However, if you find them distracting, look at them briefly, then close your eyes when you listen to the recording.

3. Pay close attention to other visuals. Images of maps, tables or charts, graphs, drawings, or objects may accompany longer talks and conversations. These visuals contain information from the talk—information that you need to answer the questions.

4. Read the questions on your computer screen as you listen to them. This can help you better understand them.

5. Pace yourself. Because you control how fast or slow you go through the test, make sure to keep track of time. Give yourself enough time to hear each recording and answer every question.

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

Skill Builders Listening well takes practice. As you prepare for the listening section of the TOEFL exam, incorporate some of these skill-building exercises into your study plan: ■ Go to places where English is spoken. The more you listen to spoken English, the more you will understand. Visit a park or museum where you will hear English around you, go to the movies in English, or converse with family and friends in English. ■ Build your concentration. Tune in to a radio program or listen to a book on tape every day. Start with a five-minute session and add five minutes each day. Your ability to focus will grow. ■ Summarize information. Listen to a radio or TV show about a serious topic. Summarize the show’s message in your mind or on paper. What is the main idea presented in the show? What are the supporting details? ■ Ask questions. When you talk with others, think about whether you really understand what they are saying. If you don’t, speak up and ask for clarification. ■ Take note of verbal clues. As you listen to different people, pick out the clues that let you know when they are changing subjects or making a point that is important to them. ■ Listen to different speaking styles. Consider the speaking styles of three different people (for example, your teachers, people you overhear at a café, or political speakers on cable news programs).What helps you understand what each has to say? What makes it difficult?

LISTENING

LISTENING TO LECTURES

Lectures, the primary teaching method in colleges today, can be challenging to listeners. They demand your sustained attention and often, you can’t interrupt a lecturer to ask a question or clarify a point. Lectures, however, are often much more organized than everyday conversation or a class discussion. Once you know what organizational and verbal clues to listen for, you will better understand what you hear.

Main ideas—Most speakers organize their lectures around a main idea or point, and often they will announce their main idea at the beginning of the lecture. These phrases and statements signal the introduction of a topic:

“Now I’d like to talk about . . .”

“Let’s turn our attention to . . .”

“Moving on to the next subject . . .”

Supporting details—A lecturer will present supporting details in the form of examples or details that develop their main idea. Keep attuned to these common words and phrases that often introduce supporting facts or details:

        for example        for instance       in particular                                                                                 in addition                   furthermore             some                                                                      others                       specifically               such as

       

Lists—Lecturers often use lists to organize their subject matter and introduce important points. Numbers can be a verbal clue that a speaker is using a list:

The three different kinds of burns are . . .

There are four reasons why this happened.

Recent environmental laws have affected our area in

several ways.

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

Key words and concepts—Speakers may introduce key terms or ideas as a way of organizing their thoughts. Listen for unfamiliar terms followed by a definition of what they mean. These phrases signal that a speaker is using a key word or concept:

“This important theme/idea/concept . . .”

“Let me define that for you.”

“This idea is central to X’s argument . . .”

QUESTION TYPES IN THE LISTENING SECTION

The questions in the listening segment of the TOEFL exam will test your ability to locate main ideas, supporting facts and details, and inferences in the conversations and talks you hear

In Class: Listening to Group Discussions When you listen to a class discussion, you are receiving information from not one, but several people. Unlike lectures, class conversations are not highly structured. Participants may interrupt each other or make a point that seems off track. Some participants offer comments that are more valuable than others. How do you make sense of it all? Try this: As you listen to a group discussion, track each person’s arguments and positions. Summarize on paper or in your mind what each speaker is saying. Then work out what the main idea is. The main idea may be a combination of everyone’s viewpoint, so it could be a two-step process.

LISTENING

1. Locate the main idea. The main idea of a conversation, class discussion, or lecture is different

from its main topic. The topic is the subject—what a conversation or lecture is about. The main idea is what the speaker wants to say or express about the subject. The main idea is a general statement that brings together all of the ideas in a conversation or talk

Main topic: what the conversation or lecture is about Main idea: what the speaker wants to express about his or her topic

Here’s an example. Listen to an instructor begin a lecture: Today we’re going to talk about the body’s immune system. As you may know, the immune system is what defends the body from

infections. It’s really a remarkable system—in the body, millions and millions of cells, organized into sets, or smaller units called subsets, make a complex communications network that pass information back and forth, almost like bees swarming around a hive. The result is a sensitive system of checks and balances the produce a prompt, appropriate, and effective immune response.

Question: What is the instructor’s main point?

a. The immune system has its own system of checks and

balances.

b. The immune system protects the body.

c. The immune system is a remarkable and complex communications network.

d. When the immune system breaks down, it can be devastating.Choice c is correct—it gives the main idea or point that the instructor is trying to express. It’s a general statement that holds together all of the information in the passage. Choice  a is too specific to be the main idea. Choice b is too general to be the main idea. Choice d may be true, but the passage does not give this information.

2. Find the supporting details. Supporting details are facts or specific examples that give proof of a speaker’s main idea. The next question asks you to find a supporting detail from the mini-lecture about the immune system.

Supporting detail: a specific fact or example that supports the main idea

Question: The body’s immune system consists of

a. swarming bees

b. billions of cells

c. a complex organization

d. a communication network

The correct answer is b. You can easily eliminate choice a— it’s a silly answer choice used to distract you. Choices c and d are too general to be supporting details.

LISTENING

3. Make inferences. Often people do not say what they mean in explicit terms. In these cases, you need draw a logical conclusion based on details or from what is suggested in a conversation. In the listening test, some questions ask you to make inferences based on a speaker’s tone, or attitude about his or her subject.

Tone: a speaker’s mood or attitude expressed in speech

Man 1: How about you help me fix my car today?

Man 2: Sure, Sam. Right after I go to work, go to the game, and study!

Question: What does Man 2’s reply suggest?

a. He plans on helping Sam fix his car.

b. He doesn’t have time to help Sam today.

c. He will help Sam, if Sam does his homework for him.

d. He is promising to help.

Choice b is correct. In speech, people often use tone rather han words to convey meaning. A word like “sure” can have dozens of meanings depending on the speaker’s tone. During

the exam, listen to how someone speaks. Consider the speaker’s attitude or mood: is he or she expressing joy, anger, disbelief, or another emotion? Inference questions may also ask you to draw a conclusion based on what a speaker implies or assumes. Here is an

example:

Woman: Frank, how do I get to Times Square?

Frank: Ask Sarah. She’s a native New Yorker.

Question: What is Frank assuming about Sarah?

a. She always carries a map of New York City.

b. She doesn’t know how to get to Times Square.

c. She will know how to get to Times Square because she grew up in New York.

d. Frank doesn’t know how to get to Times Square.

Choice c is correct. Choice a may be true, but it is not what Frank is implying. Choice d may be true, but it doesn’t answer the question. The last type of inference question asks you to make a logical conclusion about what the speaker will do in the future based on the conversation:

Woman: I forgot my textbook. Professor Jacob said we could look at our books during the test.

Man: I have a copy that I’m not using.

Question: What will the woman probably do?

a. Borrow the man’s textbook for the test.

b. Go home so she can get her book.

c. Ask the professor if she can take the test another day.

d. Call home and see if her roommate will bring it to her.

Choice a is correct. The man is offering his book to the woman even though he is not saying it explicitly. You can makethis conclusion based on what he is suggesting.

OTHER QUESTION TYPES ON THE COMPUTER TEST

Most of the questions on the computer-based test are traditional multiple choice, but some are types that can only be used on a computer. If you are taking the computer-based TOEFL exam,

become familiar with these question types:

■ Questions with more than one answer. You will select two of four possible answer choices. Here is an example: Acid rain looks, feels, even tastes like clean rainwater, but it actually contains high levels of pollutants. Although natural sources like gases from forest fires can be part of the problem, the burning of fossil fuels, such as car exhaust and smoke from

factories, is the main cause of acid rain. This how it works: pollutants mix in the atmosphere to form fine particles that can be carried long distances by wind. Eventually, they return to the ground in the form of rain or other precipitation. Acid rain has caused widespread damage in eastern North America, Europe, Japan, China, and Southeast Asia.

Question: Based on the lecture, which of the following can cause acid rain? [Click on two answers.]

a. contaminated drinking water

b. natural sources

c. man-made pollutants

d. rain

Answer: b and c.

■ Questions that use visual information. You will select an image or part of an image for your answer.

Question: Choose the map that best represents the areas negatively affected by acid rain. [Click on a map.]

Answer: You would choose a map that highlights eastern North America, Europe, Japan, China, and Southeast Asia.

■ Sequence questions. You will put information or events into order so that they form a process.

Question: Summarize what happens to acid-rain pollutants by placing the stages in the proper order. [Click on a word. Then click on the space below where it belongs. Use each word only once.] form fine particles carried by wind mix in atmosphere return to ground in rain

1. _____________________________________________

2. _____________________________________________

3. _____________________________________________

4. _____________________________________________

Answer: 1. mix in atmosphere; 2. form fine particles; 3. carried by wind; 4. return to ground in rain.

■ Matching questions. You will match up or pair images, words, or phrases.

Question: An instructor describes the formation and effectsof acid rain. Match each term with its definition. [Click on a sentence. Then click on the space where it belongs. Use each sentence only once.]

precipitation        fossil fuel          pollutant

 something that contaminates the environment

condensed vapor that falls to earth as a deposit like rain or snow

a fuel formed in the earth from plant or animal remains

Answer:

precipitation               fossil fuel              pollutant

condensed vapor       a fuel formed in     something that

that falls to earth         the earth from        contaminates the

as a deposit like           plant or animal         environment

rain or snow                remains

WHAT’S UP WITH IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS

You probably won’t see the greeting “What’s up?” in the reading portion of the TOEFL exam, but you might hear it—or another idiom—on the listening test. Idioms are words or phrases used

in a particular region. Idiomatic expressions often have unusual grammatical structures or have a meaning that does not make sense when you add up the meanings of each word. Here’s an example of a test question that will ask you to identify the meaning of an idiomatic expression:

Woman: The astronomy midterm is tomorrow!

Man: I know. I’m not ready. It’s going to be an all-nighter

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

Question: What does the man mean?

a. He’s going out past midnight.

b. He thinks the midterm is at night.

c. He’s going to stay up late studying.

d. He’s not going to study—it’s too late.

The correct answer is c. If you don’t know an idiomatic expression, think about what makes sense in the situation. You can eliminate choices a, b, and d because they are not what is suggested in the context of the conversation.

Keep Your Ears Open for Idioms “Keep your ears open”means to stay attuned—so keep your ears open for idiomatic expressions while you are listening to everyday conversations. Here is a sample of some idioms used in North America: all of a sudden: suddenly All of a sudden, the dog ran into the road. boil down: summarize; amount He boiled down the report to a page and a half. The report boiled down to a plea for more funding. catch up: to complete something belatedly I need to catch up on my sleep. drop off: deposit or deliver She dropped off the package at his house. find out: discover, learn I don’t know the answer, but I’ll find out for you.

get down: give one’s attention to; depress Let’s get down to business. The rain was getting her down. have on: wear\The man has on a new sweater. keep + –ing verb: continue without interruptionShe kept talking throughout class despite the teacher’s warnings. jump in: begin or enter eagerlyThe woman didn’t wait for instructions, she just jumpedright in. make up your mind: settle, decideI made up my mind to take the earlier train. put off: to hold back to a later timeYou will have to put off buying that dress until you havemore money. show up: arrive, appearHe always late—he would show up late to his own funeral! sleep on it: delay making a decision until the next day After considering the plan, the council decided to sleep onit and cast a vote the next day. take place: happen, occurU.S. presidential elections take place every four years. used to + verb: something accomplished in the past, butnot in the presentShe used to work as an investment banker, but now she’s ateacher.

QUICK QUIZ

Ask someone who speaks fluent English to read the following passages,questions, and answer choices into a tape recorder. Your reader should speak at a normal, conversational pace. If you can’t find someone to help you, read aloud to yourself and answer the questions that follow. The answers can be found on page 48.

Woman 1: Are going to the party tonight?

Woman 2: I don’t think so. It’s been a long day. I’m beat!

1. Why isn’t Woman 2 going to the party?

a. She doesn’t like parties.

b. She’s too busy to go.

c. She’s too tired to go.

d. She’d rather stay home and beat eggs.

Man: I promised Dante that I’d lend him my car, but I forgot

that I need it today to get to work.

Woman: I have his cell phone number.

2. What will the man probably do?

a. call his mother

b. call Dante on his cell phone

c. use the cell phone to call his boss at work

d. skip work today

Woman: I didn’t like that novel.

Man: Neither did I.

3. What does the man mean?

a. He didn’t like the book either.

b. He doesn’t like reading novels.

c. He did like the book.

d. He doesn’t know what to do.

Man:Would you mind if I turned off the radio?

Woman:Well, I’m in the middle of listening to the game. It’s almost over.

4. What is the woman implying?

a. The man should listen to the game too.

b. The man doesn’t like sports.

c. She’ll turn off the radio right away.

d. She’ll turn off the radio when the game is finished.

Man: So, how’d you do in your acting class?

Woman: Let’s just say that I won’t be winning any Academy

Awards.

5. What does the woman mean?

a. She’s a terrific actress.

b. She thinks she didn’t do very well in acting class.

c. She didn’t go to class.

d. She doesn’t have time to watch the Academy Awards ceremony on TV. Woman: Hey, why aren’t you at the physics lab?

Man: I don’t have lab on Tuesdays.

Woman: Today’s not Tuesday—it’s Wednesday! Really, Ithink you would forget your head if it weren’t attached to your shoulders.

Man: Oh no!

Woman: You can just make it if you take my car.

Man: Thanks, I’ll be careful with it!

6. What does the woman mean by “you would forget your head if it weren’t attached to your shoulders”?

a. The man is very forgetful.

b. The man forgot where the physics lab was.

c. The man has had neck surgery.

d. The man usually doesn’t forget things.

7. What will the man probably do?

a. skip lab and go to lunch with the woman

b. run as fast as he can to the lab

c. call his professor and explain the problem

d. borrow the woman’s car and drive to the lab

Questions 8 through 11 are based on the following class

discussion:

Professor: By now you have read the chapter about the challenges faced by Native Americans after the first Europeans settled in North America. What were your reactions?

Yes, Malinda?

Malinda: I was really surprised that the biggest threat to the Native Americans was disease. I couldn’t believe how much damage smallpox and measles caused.

Jose: Yeah, it was really devastating. The native population just didn’t have the immunity to those diseases. I read in the chapter that smallpox and measles killed entire Native American communities before even one European got sick!

Barbara: Disease wasn’t the only problem. There was genocide. And European settlement also destroyed their traditional way of life.

Malinda: I think it’s a tragedy how many people were killed and how much of Native American culture was lost after Europeans arrived.

Jose: I agree that it was a terrible tragedy, but I think it’s important to remember that not everything was lost. I mean, Native Americans have had a major population

recovery in the last century. And a lot of Native American tribes are really strong today. They’re carrying on their traditions and taking back control of their governments.

8. What event are the students discussing?

a. the development of Native American cultures

b. U.S. policymaking regarding Native Americans

c. the effect of European settlement on Native Americans

d. the arrival of the first people in North America

9. Why is Malinda surprised?

a. She’s surprised that Native Americans were removed from their homelands.

b. She’s surprised by the diversity of Native American cultures.

c. She doesn’t believe that some Native American populations have recently increased.

d. She can’t believe that common European diseases were so deadly to the native population.

10. The students name some of the challenges that Native Americans faced after European settlement. What were the two that they discussed?

a. malnutrition

b. new diseases

c. killing of Native Americans by Europeans

d. introduction of horses by Spanish

11. From the students’ comments, we can infer that

a. European settlement drastically changed Native Americans’way of life.

b. European settlers found few inhabitants when they arrived.

c. Europeans did not benefit from contact with Native Americans.

d. Native Americans had one culture and language.

Questions 12 through 16 are based on the following minilecture:

The Cuban Missile Crisis lasted only thirteen days. But those thirteen, terrifying days make up the world’s closest brush with the threat of nuclear war. There were several events that unfolded

during the Cuban Missile Crisis. First, on October 14, 1962, U.S. spy planes flying over Cuba

spotted Soviet missile installations under construction. The missiles were intermediate- and medium-range; they could carry nuclear weapons within the range of U.S. cities—putting the people of New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles at risk. After considering a surprise air strike, President Kennedy decided to announce a naval blockade of Cuba. But before he began the naval blockade, Kennedy made a worldwide radio and TV address on October 22. In the address, he told the public about the discovery of the missiles and demanded that the Soviet Union remove them. He said that the United States would regard a missile attack from Cuba the same as an attack from the Soviet Union, and that it would respond accordingly. The days after the speech were tense. Kennedy didn’t know how the Soviet Union would respond. Finally, after

thirteen days, Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles if the United States promised not to invade Cuba. One interesting fact is that, unknown to the U.S. government at the time, 40,000 Soviet soldiers were stationed in Cuba and armed with nuclear weapons. This information has only come to light recently when U.S. and Soviet files about the incident have become declassified. An ironic result of the crisis was that even though Khrushchev’s actions helped protect the world from nuclear war, they made him look weak to younger Soviet leaders. He was removed from power.

12. What is the speaker’s main point?

a. Thirteen days is not a long time.

b. The Soviet threat during the Cuban Missile Crisis was not real.

c. The Cuban Missile Crisis put the world at risk of nuclear war.

d. The Cuban Missile Crisis was a significant historical event.

13. According to the speaker, President Kennedy

a. knew that Khrushchev would back down.

b. didn’t think the situation was very serious.

c. viewed the crisis as a conflict between Cuba and the United States only.

d. believed the crisis was principally between the United States and the Soviet Union

14. According to the speaker, at the time of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the U.S. government

a. was not surprised to find missile installations in Cuba.

b. did not know the full extent of the Soviet threat in Cuba.

c. overestimated the Soviet threat in Cuba.

d. knew everything that was going on in Cuba.

15. The speaker describes four events that occurred during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Place these events in proper chronological order. Kennedy’s public address U.S. discovery of missile bases in Cuba U.S. blockade of CubaSoviet removal of missiles

1.

2.

3.

4.

16. The speaker suggests that by agreeing to remove the weapons and end the crisis, Khrushchev

a. made a strong choice, not a weak one.

b. brought shame to his country.

c. deserved to be removed from power.

d. made the wrong choice.

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

■ Practice active listening techniques, like using nonverbal responses.

■ Schedule listening skill builders into your study plan.

■ Go to places where English is spoken regularly.

■ Listen to radio or TV programs or go to the movies regularly.

■ Review how lectures are structured; listen to a lecture or long program.

■ Listen for idiomatic expressions in everyday conversation; look up those that you don’t know.

■ Main ideas are general statements that a speaker wants to say something about a topic.

■ Supporting details are specific examples and facts that back up a main idea.

■ Inferences are what a speaker suggests or implies butdoes not necessarily say.

■ Tone is a speaker’s attitude or mood expressed in speech.

■ If you are taking the computer-based exam, know itsspecial features and the question types specific to thattest.

■ Review the differences between the computer- and paper-based tests.

QUIZ ANSWERS

1. c.

2. b.

3. a.

4. d.

5. b.

6. a.

7. d.

8. c.

9. d.

10. b and c.

11. a.

12. c.

13. d.

14. b.

15.       1. U.S. discovery of missile bases in Cuba

2. Kennedy’s public address

3. U.S. blockade of Cuba

4. Soviet removal of missiles

16. a.

Chapter 3

Structure

When you communicate in writing, you make a permanent impression. When you talk, you may abbreviate words, leave sentences unfinished, or use informal words and phrases, but when you write, you must follow the grammatical constructions of formal English. Admissions

officers will want to know if you have the ability to express yourself clearly and correctly in written English—an essential skill in college. The structure section of the TOEFL exam measures your knowledge of English grammar and style. It presents you with sentences that you need to correct by filling in a blank or by identifying a grammatical error. The sentences will cover topics similar to those in college courses like history, biology, sociology, and art. However, you do not need to have specific knowledge of these topics to answer the questions in the structure test.

QUESTION TYPES IN THE STRUCTURE SECTION

There are two basic kinds of questions on the structure section of both the computer-based and paper-based exams:

■ Sentence completion. This question type presents a sentence with a blank. From four possible answer choices, you will select the one word or phrase that correctly completes the sentence. Here are some

examples:

1. The company had dumped waste into the river for years

and it ________ to continue doing so.

a. plans

b. planning

c. planned

d. had planned

2. After the female emperor penguin lays a single egg, she

gives them to her mate, ________ holds it in a fold of skin

near his feet for a two-month incubation period.

a. he

b. who

c. which

d. while

Answers: 1. C

2. b

■ Recognizing grammatical mistakes. In this question type, sentences will have four underlined words or phrases. You will choose the underlined word or phrase that is incorrect. Here are some examples

STRUCTURE

3. Frank Lloyd Wright, by designing the low-cost “Usonian”A B house in the 1930s, wanting to make American architec- C D ture more “democratic” and affordable to everyone.

a. A

b. B

c. C

d. D

4. A lack in vitamin D, which comes from fortified milk or A B sunshine, can decrease the body’s ability to absorb calcium. C D

a. A

b. B

c. C

d. D

Answers: 3. c

                 4. a

COMPUTER TEST VS. PAPER TEST

You will find some key differences between the computer-based test (CBT) and the paper-and-pencil exam. Although the questions will cover the same type of material, you will answer fewer

questions about each on the CBT. The structure section of the CBT is also computer adaptive, meaning that the computer selects questions based on your ability level. Your first question will be of average difficulty. If you answer it correctly, your next

TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS

question will be harder. If you answer incorrectly, your next question will be easier. Here is an overview of the differences between the two tests:

Computer Test: Structure	Paper-and-Pencil: Structure and Written Expression
15–20 minutes	25 minutes
20–25 questions	40 questions
Computer adaptive: the level of difficulty of ques- tions is based on each test-taker’s ability	Test takers answer the same questions
Question types are mixed together and presented at random.	Question types fall into two sections Part A—15 sentencecompletion questions Part B—25 questions in which you identify grammar mistakes
Once you submit an answer, you cannot change it.	You can return to previous questions and change your answers.
Your score on the structure section is combined with your score in the writing portion of the test.	Your score on this section is not combined with another part of the test.

MAKING SENSE OF SENTENCES

The grass grows. This is an example of the basic unit of thoughtin the English language: the sentence. Sentences must have twokey parts—a subject and a predicate—and express a completethought. The subject (grass) names what the sentence is talkingabout. The predicate is a verb or verb phrase (grows) that tells ussomething about the subject. The subject of a sentence may besingular, meaning that there is only one subject. Subjects mayalso be compound, meaning they have more than one subject: The grass and the flowers grow. The predicate may also be singular or compound. For example,here the predicate is singular: I ate a bowl of spaghetti. In the following example, the predicate is a compound: I ate a bowl of

spaghetti and drank two glasses of milk.

WHAT IS A CLAUSE?

Like sentences, clauses are groups of words that have a subject and a predicate. Clauses may be independent or dependent. An independent clause stands alone and expresses a complete idea as in this example: Ximena walked on the grass. When a sentence has more than one independent clause, it is called a compound sentence. In compound sentences, independent clauses are joined by a connecting word or conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so, or yet). In the following example, the independent clauses are underlined: Ximena walked on the grass, but she didn’t get her new shoes wet.A dependent clause does not express a complete thought: though it was wet. When a dependent clause stands alone, it is called a sentence fragment.To make a complete thought, a dependent clause needs an independent clause: Though it was wet, Ximena walked on the grass. Sentences that contain an independent clause and a dependent clause are called complex sentences. Quick tip: To identify a sentence fragment or dependent

clause on the TOEFL exam, look for the following joining words, called subordinating conjunctions. When a clause has a subordinating conjunction, it needs an independent clause to complete an idea.

after                 because          once    though             when                                       although          before             since    unless              where as,                                            as if                   if                    that      until                  while

Practice

Underline the independent clauses in the following sentences. Find the answers on page 82.

1. I went for a walk downtown and mailed your letter.

2. If it is hot tomorrow, let’s go to the beach.

3. The 20-foot-tall, long-necked giraffe is the tallest living animal on Earth.

4. The log-cabin quilt was probably designed as a way to give a second life to unwieldy but warm fabrics salvaged from uits and coats.

PARTS OF

A word can be classified as a different part of speech depending on how it works in a sentence. For example, the word quiet can be a noun, verb, or adjective; add –ly and it can function as an

adverb. This table lists the parts of speech

Part of Speech,	Function	Examples
noun	names a person place, thing, or concept	Emma, cat, girl, Elm Street, vase, pen, New York, weather
pronoun,	takes the place of a noun so that the does not have to be repeated	I, you,he, she, us, they, this that, themselves, somenoun body, who, which
verb	describes an action, occurrence, or state of being	swim, becomes, is, seemed, hoping
helping verb	combines with other verbs (main verbs) to, create verb phrases that help indicate tenses	forms of be, do and have; can, could, may, must, , might shall, should, will, would
adjective	describes nouns and pronouns; can also identify or quantify	green, content, awake small, heavy, happy; that (e.g., that car); several(e.g., several dogs
adverb	describes verbs, adjec tives, other adverbs or entire clauses	quickly, slowly, suddenly, always, very, yesterday
preposition	expresses the relation ship in time or space between words in a sentence	in, on, around, above between, underneath beside, with, upon

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

She don’t or she doesn’t? You might easily pick out the second version as the correct match between subject and verb. However, some instances of subject-verb agreement are trickier—even for native speakers of English. Subject-verb agreement is when the subject of the sentence

correctly matches the verb in number. If the subject is singular, the verb is singular. If the subject is plural, the verb is plural.

Singular: Betto feeds the birds every day.

Plural: Betto and Josephine feed the birds every day.

Subject-verb agreement can be confusing, however. Look out for problem verb forms and the other common pitfalls listed below.

■ The subject I—Even though I is a single person, it usually takes the plural form of the verb: I look. I do.

■ The verb to be—The irregular verb to be (be, am, is, are, was, were) is a problem verb because of the unusual way it is formed. Remember never to use the be form after a subject.

I be going is incorrect.

I am going is correct.

■ Doesn’t/don’t, Wasn’t/weren’t—These verb constructions can confuse writers. Doesn’t (does not) and wasn’t (was not) are singular. Don’t (do not) and weren’t (were not) are plural. (I takes the plural form, don’t) I don’t want to leave. I wasn’t in class yesterday. She doesn’t want to leave. We weren’t in class yesterday.

■ Words or phrases that follow a subject—A common error in making subject-verb agreement is confusing a phrase (words or phrase that follow a subject) with the subject of the sentence. When you read, be careful to locate the true subject of the sentence. Subject and verbs are underlined in the following examples. One of the boys is missing. The paintings by Pedro Reiss are bold and commanding. The president, along with three members of his Cabinet, returned to Washington today.

■ Singular nouns that end in s—Some words like measles, mumps, news, checkers or marbles (games), physics, economics, sports, and politics are singular despite their plural form, because we think of them as a single thing. Some are singular or plural depending on how they are used in a sentence. The news begins at 6 p.m. Aerobics is a great way to get in shape and reduce stress.

■ Pronoun subjects—Pronouns are misused often in speech and writing. Some pronouns are always singular,

whereas others are always plural. A few can be either singular or plural. Each, either, neither, anybody, anyone, everybody, everyone, no one, nobody, one, somebody, someone are singular pronouns that agree with singular verbs. Everyone wants to win the lottery. Each of the managers wants her own phone line.

■ Both, few, many, and several are plural pronouns and agree with plural verbs. Both of her ex-boyfriends are attending the wedding.

■ All, any most, none, and some can be singular or plural pronouns, depending on their use.

All of the ice cream is gone. All of the ice cream sundaes are gone.

WHEN THINGS GET COMPLEX . . .

When you look at complex sentences, pay close attention to determine whether the subject and verb agree. These guidelines will help you:

■ If two nouns or pronouns are joined by and, they need a plural verb.

Oscar and Lorraine drive to work on most days.

■ If two singular nouns or pronouns are joined by or or nor, they need a singular verb.

On most days, Oscar or Lorraine drives to work.

■ If one plural and one singular subject are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the closest subject. Neither the teacher nor the students like the textbook. Neither the students nor the teacher likes the textbook.

■ If a sentence asks a question or begins with the words there or here, the subject follows the verb. The verb must agree with the subject. The subjects are underlined in the following examples. Here is the evidence to prove it.What are his reasons?

Practice

Circle the correct verb in each sentence. Find the answers on page 82.

5. The chief executive officer and the chairman of the board agrees/agree about the new benefit package.

6. All of the children sleeps/sleep at naptime.

7. One of the first modern detectives in literature was/were created by Edgar Allan Poe.

GETTING PRONOUNS RIGHT

Pronouns are words that take the place of a noun or another pronoun. The nouns represented by pronouns are called antecedents. Just as subjects and verbs must agree in number, pronouns and antecedents need to agree in number. If the antecedent is singular, the pronoun is singular; if the antecedent is plural, the pronoun is plural. In the following examples, pronouns are italicized and the antecedents are underlined:

The teachers received their benefits.

Maggie wants to bring her digital camera on the trip.

Sometimes pronoun agreement is tricky. Review these guidelines so you can identify common pronoun errors in the TOEFL

exam:

■ Indefinite pronouns (pronouns that don’t refer to a specific person) like each, either, neither, anybody, anyone, everybody, everyone, no one, nobody, one, somebody, and someone always require singular pronouns. Each of the boys wore his favorite costume. Neither of the tenants could find her copy of the lease.

■ If two singular nouns or pronouns are joined by and, use a plural pronoun.

When Grandma and Grandpa visit, they always bring presents.

■ If two singular nouns or pronouns are joined by or, use a singular pronoun.

Remember to give Sophie or Jane her application.

■ If a singular and a plural noun or pronoun are joined by or, the pronoun agrees with the closest noun or pronoun it represents.

The coach or players will explain their game strategy.

The players or the coach will explain his game strategy.

Troublesome Pronouns
Its/It’s Its means “belonging to it.” It’s is a contraction for “it is.”	The dog wagged its tail. It’s time to go. (It is time to go.)
Your/You are Your means “belonging to you.” You are is a contraction for “you are	Your phone is ringing. You’re right about that. (You.” are right . . . )
Their/They’re/There Their means “belonging to them.” They’re is a contraction for “they are.” There is an adverb describing where an action takes place.	Their plane is ready for take-off. They’re going to miss the plane. (They are going . . . ) There goes the plane!
Whose/Who’s Whose means “belonging to whom.” Who’s is a contraction for “who is”or “who has.”	Whose sweater is this? Who’s coming to dinner? (Who is coming to dinner?)
Who/That/Which Who refers to people. That refers to things Which introduces clauses that are not essential to the information in the sentence, unless they refer to people. In that case, use who.	The man who fixes my car has retired. . This is the car that I told you about. The band, which started out in Boston, is now famous in Europe and Japan. Maya, who plays in the band, lives upstairs.

Practice

Circle the correct pronoun in each sentence. Find the answers on page 82.

8. No one in her/their right mind would follow your advice.

9. Arnold or Jacques will bring his/their recorder so he/they can tape the interview.

10. Bring your/you’re fishing pole along if your/you’re coming.

11. Interstate 235, who/which/that runs through town, is being repaired this summer.

12. Its/It’s your/you’re turn to do the dishes.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Study careful! This is an example of a common mistake: confusing an adjective for an adverb. The correct statement is “study carefully.” Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers, or words that

describe other words. However, adjectives and adverbs describe different parts of speech. In the preceding example, carefully is an adverb describing the verb study. Adjectives describe nouns or pronouns and answer one of three questions:  which one? what kind? and how many?

which one?              that tree, the other shoe, her last time

what kind?             elm tree, suede shoe, exciting time

how many?              five trees, many shoes, several times

Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs and answer oneof these questions about another word in the sentence: where? when? how? and to what extent?

where? Place your baggage below your seat.

when? Call your mother tomorrow.

how? Kyoko turned suddenly.

to what extent? Ben could hardly wait.

To recognize grammatical mistakes involving adjectives and adverbs, review these common trouble spots:

■ Verbs that deal with the senses (touch, taste, look, smell, sound)—Deciding which modifier to use with these verbs can be especially tricky. If the modifier is describing a noun or pronoun that comes before the verb, use an adjective. If the modifier is describing a verb, use an adverb.

The entire group felt sick after lunch. (Sick is an adjective describing the noun group.)

The trainer felt gently around the player’s ankle. (Gently is an adverb describing the verb felt).

■ Adjectives that follow the verb—Sometimes an adjective comes after the verb, but it describes a noun or pronoun that comes before the verb. In this example, the noun is in bold and the adjective is underlined:

These pickles taste salty. (salty pickles)

■ Misplaced modifiers—Modifiers should be placed as closely as possible to the words that describe.

The entire group felt sick after lunch. (Sick is an adjective describing the noun group.)

The trainer felt gently around the player’s ankle. (Gently is an adverb describing the verb felt).

■ Adjectives that follow the verb—Sometimes an adjective comes after the verb, but it describes a noun or pronoun that comes before the verb. In this example,

 the noun is in bold and the adjective is underlined:

These pickles taste salty. (salty pickles)

■ Misplaced modifiers—Modifiers should be placed as closely as possible to the words that describe.

Incorrect: My uncle told me about raising cattle in the kitchen. (Why were cattle in the kitchen?)

Correct: In the kitchen, my uncle told me about raising cattle.

Problem Modifiers
Fewer/Less Fewer describes plural nouns, or things that can be counted. Less describes singular nouns that represent a. quantity or degree	The school enrolls fewer children than it once did. Julian has less time than you do
Good/Well Good is an adjective Well is an adverb, used to Sophia performed well on describe an action	Caroline felt good about her test results. (Good describes Caroline.) . the test. (Well describes the verb performed.)
Bad/Badly Bad is an adjective Badly is an adverb, used to describe an action	Owen felt bad after his lengthy workout. (Bad describes Owen.) The band played badly at the concert. (Badly describes the verb

■ Dangling modifiers—Words, phrases, or clauses set off

by commas at the beginning a sentence sometimes modify the wrong noun or pronoun.

Incorrect: Broken and beyond repair, Grandma threw away the serving dish. (Why was Grandma broken?)

Correct: Grandma threw away the broken serving dish that was beyond repair.

Practice

Choose the correct word in parentheses in each of the following sentences. Find the answers on pages 82–83.

13. The music sounded (strange, strangely).

14. My cowboy boots feel less (comfortable, comfortably) than my pumps.

15. Ask (polite, politely) if you would like a second serving.

16. Phoebe makes (fewer, less) money than her sister does.

17. He runs so (good, well) that he often wins local road races.

DON’T BE BE TOO NEGATIVE

Although in Shakespeare’s time, a double negative—the use of two negatives in the same sentence—could be used to emphasize a point, today double negatives are considered a grammatical mistake. Be on the lookout for sentences that “double up” on the following negative words:

no                    neither             nobody            scarcely

not                  nothing            nowhere          barely

neither             no one                                     hardly

MAKING COMPARISONS

Adjectives and adverbs change form when they are used to make comparisons. To create comparisons, follow these general rules: When comparing two things,

■ add –er to short modifiers of one or two syllables (taller, wiser).

■ use the word more or less before the modifiers of more than two syllables (more dependable, less outrageous). When comparing more than two things,

■ add –est to short modifiers of one or two syllables ( funniest, rudest).

■ use the word most or least before modifiers of more than two syllables (most intelligent, least precisely).

Special Cases: The following comparative modifiers don’t follow these rules—they change form completely.

Modifier Comparative Superlative

Good               better                          best

well                  better                           best

many               more                            most

much               more                            most

bad                  worse                         worst

little                  less or lesser               least

Practice

Circle the correct modifier in each sentence. Find the answers on page 83.

18. The judge looked skeptical/skeptically at the attorney.

19. Pasta does not taste as good/well if it is overcooked.

20. Pleasant Lake is the best/better trout lake around.

ACTION WORDS

Verbs form the heart of a sentence—they express the action or state of being of the subject. The tense of the verb tells readers when the action happens, happened, or will happen. Verbs have five basic forms:

1. The infinitive is the base form of the verb plus the word to. →to swim, to hope, to be

2. The present tense expresses action that happens now or happens routinely. →The baby smiles a lot.

3. The present participle describes what is happening now. A helping verb (am, is, are) precedes the -ing form of the verb. →The baby is smiling again.

4. The past tense shows an action that happened in the past. →School officials warned the students last fall.

5. The past participle expresses an action that happened in the past. It uses a helping verb such as has, have, or had. →The reporter has followed the story since it broke.

REGULAR VERBS

Regular verbs follow a standard set of rules for forming the present participle, past tense, and past participle forms. The present participle is formed by adding –ing. The past and past participle are formed by adding –ed. If the verb ends with the letter e, just add d. If the verb ends with the letter y, for the past tense, change the y to an i and add –ed. Here are some examples:

Present         Present Participle               Past                Past Participle

Talk                 talking                                     talked                         talked

exercise          exercising                                exercised        exercised

multiply            multiplying                               multiplied         multiplied

notice              noticing                                    noticed            noticed

IRREGULAR VERBS

Approximately 150 verbs in English are irregular. They do not follow the standard rules for changing tense. Irregular verbs fall into three categories:

■ irregular verbs with the same past and past participle forms

■ irregular verbs with three distinct forms

■ irregular verbs with the same present and past participle forms.

The table on the next few pages lists the most common irregular verbs.

Irregular Verbs with the Same Past and Past

Participle Forms

Present         Past                Past Participle

bite                  bit                    bit

dig                   dug                  dug

bleed               bled                bled

hear                 heard               heard

hold                 held                 held

light                  lit                     lit

meet                met                  met

pay                  paid                 paid

say                  said                 said                

sell                   sold                  sold

tell                    told                  told

shine                shone              shone

shoot               shot                shot               

sit                     sat                   sat

spin                  spun                spun

spit                   spat                spat

swear              swore              swore

tear                  tore                 tore

creep               crept                crept

deal                 dealt                dealt

keep                kept                 kept

kneel               knelt                knelt

leave               left                  left

mean               meant             meant

send                sent                 sent

sleep                slept                 slept

spend              spent               spent

bring                brought            brought

buy                  bought             bought

catch               caught            caught

fight                 fought              fought

teach               taught              taught

think                thought            thought

feed                 fed                  fed

flee                  fled                  fled

find                  found               found

grind                ground             ground

Irregular Verbs with Three Distinct Forms

Present         Past Past      Participle

begin               began              begun

ring                  rang                 rung

sing                  sang                sung

spring              sprang            sprung

do                    did                   done

go                    went               gone

am                   was                 been

is                      was                 been

see                  saw                 seen

drink                drank               drunk

shrink              shrank             shrunk

sink                  sank                sunk

stink                 stank               stunk

swear              swore                         sworn

tear                  tore                 torn

wear                wore                worn

blow                 blew                 blown

draw                drew                drawn

fly                    flew                flown

grow                grew g            rown

know               knew               known

throw               threw              thrown

drive                drove               driven

strive               strove             striven

choose            chose              chosen

rise                  rose                 risen

break               broke               broken

speak              spoke              spoken

fall                   fell                   fallen

shake              shook              shaken

take                 took                 taken

forget               forgot               forgotten

get                   got                   gotten

give                 gave                given

forgive             forgave           forgiven

forsake            forsook            forsaken

hide                 hid                   hidden

ride                  rode                ridden

write                wrote              written

freeze              froze                frozen

steal                 stole                 stolen

Irregular Verbs with the Same Present and Past

Participle Forms

Present         Past               Past Participle

Come              came              come                                                                                    overcome          overcame             overcome

 run                  ran                   run

Review these common errors involving verb tense, so that you can identify them on the structure test:

■ Mixed verb tenses—Switching tense within a sentence can change its meaning. Generally, a passage that begins in the present tense should continue in the present tense.

■ Improper past tense—Don’t use past tense to make a statement about a present condition.

Incorrect: Zelda met the new director. He was very tall. (Isn’t he still tall?)

Correct: Zelda met the new director. He is very tall.

■ Subjunctive mood—The subjective mood of verbs expresses something that is imagined, wished for, or contrary to fact. The subjunctive of was is were.

If I were rich, I’d quit my job and move to Tahiti. (I am not rich.)

If you were a dog, you would be entirely dependent upon human beings. (You are not a dog.)

Practice

Circle the correct verb in each sentence. Find the answers on page 83.

21. Statistics was/were my most difficult course in high school.

22. The clerk rings/ring up the sales while the customers waits/wait in line.

23. Has/Have either of the tenants paid the rent?

24. If I was/were on the school board, I’d abolish the dress code.

25. I stayed at a bed and breakfast inn in Vermont. The building is/was Victorian.

TRICKY VERBS

The sets of verbs on the next page confuse even native speakers of English. To keep them straight, think about which verb in each pair needs an object. For example, lie describes an action performed by a subject: I will lie down. Lay, on the other hand, needs an object to make sense: He lays the baby in the crib.To make things more confusing, the past tense of lie is lay! Review this chart and practice using these tricky verbs in context.

PREPOSITIONAL IDIOMS

Knowing which preposition (to, of, about, for, with, about, on, upon,

etc.) is appropriate in a sentence is a challenging part of mastering

English. Review these common prepositional idioms:

according to    depend on/upon         next to

afraid of           equal to                       of the opinion

Lie/Lay
Lie means to rest, to recline. (subject past tense: lay, had lain Lay means “to place, to set down.”(needs an object) Past tense: laid, had laid	Don’t just lie there like a lump, do something! Last night, he lay on the couch and fell asleep. I always lay my keys on the counter. (The object is keys.) Ruben laid the blankets on the bed yesterday.
Sit/Set Sit means “to rest.” (subject) Set means “to put or place.” (needs an object)	She always sits behind her desk. He set the files on my desk. The object is files.)
Rise/Raise Rise means “to go up(subject) Raise means “go move something up .”(needs an object)	After it is filled with hot air, the balloon rises. The town officials are raising property taxes this year. (The object is taxes.)

anxious about                          except for                                on top of

apologize to (someone)          fond of                                     opposite of

apologize for (something)       from now on                           prior to

approve of                               from time                               to time proud of

ashamed of                             frown on/upon                        regard to

aware of                                  full of                                       related to

blame (someone)                    for glance at/through              rely on/upon

Lie/Lay
Lie means to rest, to recline.” (subject) past tense: lay, had lain. Lay means “to place, to set down.”(needs an object) Past tense: laid, had laid	Don’t just lie there like a lump, do something! Last night, he lay on the couch and fell asleep I always lay my keys on the counter. (The object is keys.) Ruben laid the blankets on the bed yesterday
Sit/Set Sit means “to rest.” (subject). Set means “to put or place.” (needs an object)	She always sits behind her desk He set the files on my desk. (The object is files.)
Rise/Raise Rise means “to go up.” (subject) Raise means “go move something up.”(needs an object)	After it is filled with hot air, the balloon rises. The town officials are raising property taxes this year( The object is taxes.)

anxious about                          except for                                on top of

apologize to (someone)          fond of                                    opposite of

apologize for (something)       from now                                on prior to

approve of                               from time to time                  proud of

ashamed of                             frown on/upon                       regard to

aware of                                  full of                                       related to

blame (someone)                    for glance at/through              rely on/upon